what can too much protein do to your body

• Periodical Listing
• ISRN Nutr
• v.2013; 2013
• PMC4045293

ISRN Nutr. 2013; 2013: 126929.

Adverse Furnishings Associated with Protein Intake above the Recommended Dietary Allowance for Adults

Ioannis Delimaris

External Postdoctoral Research Team, Biological science Unit, Faculty of Man Sciences, Academy of Thessaly, 38221 Volos, Greece

Received 2013 May 28; Accepted 2013 Jun 27.

Abstruse

Background. While loftier-protein consumption—higher up the current recommended dietary allowance for adults (RDA: 0.8 g poly peptide/kg torso weight/twenty-four hours)—is increasing in popularity, there is a lack of information on its potential adverse effects. Objective. To determine the potential affliction risks due to loftier protein/high meat intake obtained from diet and/or nutritional supplements in humans. Pattern. Review. Subjects. Healthy adult male and female subjects. Method. In society to place relevant studies, the electronic databases, Medline and Google Scholar, were searched using the terms:"high protein diet," "protein overconsumption," "poly peptide overuse," and "high meat nutrition." Papers non in English were excluded. Further studies were identified by citations in retrieved papers. Results. 32 studies (21 experimental human studies and 11 reviews) were identified. The adverse effects associated with long-term loftier protein/high meat intake in humans were (a) disorders of bone and calcium homeostasis, (b) disorders of renal role, (c) increased cancer run a risk, (d) disorders of liver function, and (east) precipitated progression of coronary artery disease. Conclusions. The findings of the present study suggest that there is currently no reasonable scientific footing in the literature to recommend poly peptide consumption in a higher place the current RDA (loftier protein diet) for healthy adults due to its potential affliction risks. Further inquiry needs to exist carried out in this area, including large randomized controlled trials.

1. Introduction

Protein is an essential macronutrient needed by the human body for growth and maintenance. Foods rich in animal protein are meat, fish, eggs, poultry, and dairy products, while constitute foods loftier in protein are mainly legumes, basics, and grains. The current recommended dietary allowance (RDA) for protein is 0.8 thousand protein/kg body weight/solar day for adults (for children 1.5 g poly peptide/kg body weight/day, and for adolescents 1.0 g poly peptide/kg body weight/twenty-four hour period) [one]. Still, high protein diets (defined as an intake above the current RDA) are promoted intensively by the nutritional supplements industry and they are considered to be "the gold standard" by many athletes (particularly bodybuilders) for muscle development and/or body fat loss. On the other hand, several scientists claim that the overuse of poly peptide supplements or high dietary protein intake could cause disorders to man health [1–vii]. The aim of this review written report is to decide the potential health dangers due to high poly peptide/high meat intake obtained from diet or nutritional supplements based on the human studies existent in the literature. During the period of Oct 2012–May 2013, a search was carried out in the databases PubMed (1967 to nowadays) and Google Scholar (1966 to present). There were included studies in English language which had analyzed the potential health dangers due to long-term high protein intake obtained from diet or nutritional supplements in humans. The titles and the abstracts of the initial studies identified were searched in club to determine if they satisfy the selection criteria. The integral text of selected titles was extracted and the reference list of selected articles was consulted in lodge to observe out other relevant publications. 32 studies (21 experimental human being studies and 11 reviews) were identified which comprised data related to the potential adverse furnishings of protein overconsumption using the following search terms: "loftier poly peptide diet," "poly peptide overconsumption," "protein overuse," and "high meat nutrition." The experimental human studies' features included in the written report are conveyed in Table i (reviews are not included).

Table 1

Disorders and health risks due to high poly peptide/high meat intake (above 0.8 one thousand protein/kg torso weight/mean solar day) in adults.

ID	Subjects	Findings	References
Os and calcium homeostasis
1	11 healthy adults	Hypercalciuria	[8]
2	6 salubrious adult males	(a) Hypercalciuria, (b) negative calcium rest	[9]
three	16 salubrious developed females	(a) Hypercalciuria, (b) increased os resorption	[10]
iv	10 salubrious adults	(a) Decreased estimated calcium balance, (b) increased risk for bone loss	[eleven]
5	85,900 adult females	Increased risk of forearm fracture	[12]
six	four salubrious adults and 4 patients with nephrolithiasis	(a) Hypercalciuria, (b) increased intestinal assimilation of calcium	[13]
7	9 healthy adult males	Hypercalciuria	[14]
8	6 healthy developed males	Hypercalciuria	[15]
9	15 salubrious adults	Hypercalciuria	[sixteen]
x	6 healthy adult males	(a) Hypercalciuria, (b) the consumption of high calcium diets is unlikely to prevent the negative calcium balance and probable os loss induced past the consumption of loftier protein diets	[17]
11	8 healthy adult males	Hypercalciuria	[18]
12	eight good for you adult males	Hypercalciuria	[19]
13	1035 developed females	A decrease in vegetable poly peptide intake and an increase in creature protein intake increased bone loss and the risk of hip fracture	[twenty]
Renal function
14	viii healthy adults with a history of renal stones	(a) Hyperuricosuria, (b) lower urine pH (c) Increased risk of forming crystals or stones in the urine	[21]
nine	15 healthy adults	(a) Hyperuricosuria, (b) increased risk for uric acid stones	[sixteen]
4	10 salubrious adults	(a) Increased acid load to the kidney, (b) increased risk for stone formation	[11]
15	1624 adult females	Accelerated renal function decline in women with mild renal insufficiency	[22]
xvi	6 salubrious adult males	Increased overall relative probability of forming stones	[23]
11	8 healthy adult males	(a) Hyperuricosuria, (b) decreased ability of urines to inhibit the agglomeration of calcium oxalate crystals	[xviii]
12	8 salubrious adult males	(a) Ιncreased glomerular filtration charge per unit, (b) decreased fractional renal tubular reabsorption of calcium and urinary sodium	[19]
Cancer risk
17	47,949 adult males	Elevated risk of colon cancer was associated with loftier intake of red meat	[24]
xviii	88,751 adult females	High intake of red meat increases the risk of colon cancer	[25]
nineteen	18,139 adults	Meat intake positively associated with cancer risk (stomach, colon, rectal, pancreatic, bladder, breast, endometrial, and ovarian cancers)	[26]
Liver function
20	2 healthy adult males on high protein supplements	(a) Elevations in transaminases, (b) hyperalbuminemia	[27]
Coronary blood flow
21	36 adults	Precipitated progression of coronary artery disease through increases in lipid deposition and inflammatory and coagulation pathways	[28]

2. Disorders of Os and Calcium Homeostasis

Diet which is high in protein generates a big amount of acid in trunk fluids [ii]. The kidneys reply to this dietary acid claiming with net acrid excretion, and, concurrently, the skeleton supplies buffer by active resorption of bone resulting in excessive calcium loss [two]. Moreover, acid loading directly inhibits renal calcium reabsorption leading to hypercalciuria in combination with the exorbitant bone loss [three, 4]. In a metabolic study an increase in protein intake from virtually 47 to 112 g acquired an increase in urinary calcium and a decrease in calcium retention. The data indicated that protein-induced hypercalciuria was due to an elevation in glomerular filtration rate and a lower fractional renal tubular reabsorption of calcium, the latter of which caused past the increased acid load on the renal tubular cells [eight]. Another study on subjects consuming diets containing 48 m protein daily to 142 g showed that urinary calcium doubled, while the calcium balance became negative [9]. In improver, the effect of dietary protein on markers of os turnover has been evaluated [ten]. In this study the subjects were on a well-balanced diet for 2 weeks which was followed past iv days of an experimental diet containing one of iii levels of protein (low, medium, or high). Urinary calcium excretion was significantly higher, and urinary N-telopeptide excretion (indicator of os resorption) was significantly greater during the high poly peptide than during the low protein intake. Data suggested that, at high levels of dietary protein, at least a portion of the increase in urinary calcium reflected increased os resorption [x]. Additionally, subjects on a depression-sugar high-protein (LCHP) diet for half dozen weeks had increased urinary calcium levels, decreased calcium balance, and decreased serum osteocalcin concentrations [11]. In a prospective study, protein was associated with an increased take chances of forearm fracture for women who consumed more than than 95 1000 per day compared with those who consumed less than 68 g per solar day. Women who consumed five or more servings of ruddy meat per week also had a significantly increased risk of forearm fracture compared with women who ate red meat less than once per week [12]. Furthermore, the effect of high-poly peptide diets on the excretion of calcium in urine was evaluated in normal persons and patients with nephrolithiasis. All subjects were given diets containing 0.5 1000 protein/kg/day, while, during the experimental phase, each person received an boosted one.5 g protein/kg/twenty-four hours. There was a consequent increase in urinary calcium with the high-protein diet averaging 88% above command in the normals and 82% in the patients [xiii]. Moreover, in a written report where protein intake was varied from 47 g/mean solar day (low protein nutrition) to 95 g/mean solar day (medium protein diet) and to 142 g/day (high poly peptide nutrition) the urinary calcium increased significantly with each increment in protein (168, 240, and 301 mg, resp.) [14]. In addition, it has been shown that increasing the poly peptide intake from 48 to 141 k daily acquired a highly pregnant elevation in urinary calcium, the mean daily values being 175 and 338 mg, respectively [fifteen]. In some other written report the relationship of fauna poly peptide rich diet to calcium metabolism was investigated during a 12-day dietary period. An increment in urinary calcium excretion was found indicating that the animal protein-induced calciuric response could be a risk cistron for the development of osteoporosis [16]. Notably, information technology has been shown that the consumption of high calcium diets is unlikely to prevent the negative calcium balance and probable bone loss induced by the consumption of loftier poly peptide diets (protein-induced hypercalciuria) [17]. In this experiment (a 95-twenty-four hours metabolic study) subjects received formula diets supplying 12 g nitrogen or 36 grand nitrogen, and approximately 1400 mg calcium per twenty-four hours. Overall calcium residuum was −37 mg/day on the 12 k nitrogen nutrition, and significantly lower at −137 mg/solar day in subjects consuming the high protein nutrition [17]. Additionally, dietary excess (2 thou/kg/twenty-four hours) in animal protein for ane week led to significant changes in urinary calcium excretion rates [eighteen]. Furthermore, in an interesting study the furnishings on urinary calcium levels of increasing dietary protein from 50 to 150 1000 protein were compared with those of increasing the sulfur amino acids to simulate the amounts present in the 150 g protein diet. The increase in protein intake acquired urinary calcium to double, while sulfur amino acids added to the depression protein diet also caused urinary calcium to increase [19]. Moreover, a prospective cohort study showed that a high ratio of dietary animal to vegetable protein increases the rate of bone loss and the risk of fracture in postmenopausal women. Animal foods provide predominantly acid precursors, whereas protein in vegetable foods is accompanied by base precursors not found in brute foods. Imbalance between dietary acrid and base precursors leads to a chronic net dietary acid load that may have adverse consequences on bone. An increase in vegetable poly peptide intake and a subtract in animal protein intake may subtract os loss and the run a risk of hip fracture [20].

3. Disorders of Renal Function

Low fluid intake and excessive intake of protein are important adventure factors for kidney stones [3]. Protein ingestion increases renal acid excretion, and acid loads, in turn, may be buffered in office past os, which releases calcium to be excreted past the kidney. This poly peptide-induced hypercalciuria could atomic number 82 to the germination of calcium kidney stones [4]. Furthermore, animal protein is also the major dietary source of purines, the precursors of uric acid. Excessive intake of animal protein is therefore associated with hyperuricosuria, a condition present in some uric acid rock formers [five]. Uric acid solubility is largely determined past the urinary pH. As the pH falls below 5.5 to 6.0, the solubility of uric acid decreases, and uric acrid precipitates, even if hyperuricosuria is not present [v]. The pathobiochemical mechanisms of creature protein-induced nephrolithiasis are shown in Figure 1. An interesting study on the effects of protein overload on stone-forming propensity showed that consumption of high-poly peptide diet for 6 weeks delivers a marked acid load to the kidney and increases the adventure for stone germination (urinary citrate levels decreased, and urinary saturation of undissociated uric acid increased) [eleven]. Furthermore, in a report of three 12-day dietary periods during which the nutrition of the subjects contained vegetable protein, vegetable and egg protein, or animal protein, information technology was plant that the animal protein-rich nutrition was associated with the highest excretion of undissociated uric acid due to the reduction in urinary pH [16]. Moreover, citrate excretion was reduced because of the acid load, and urinary crystallization studies revealed that the brute protein nutrition conferred an increased run a risk for uric acrid stones [16]. In another written report information technology was shown that a high poly peptide intake induced changes in urinary uric acid and citrate excretion rates and a decrease in the ability of urines to inhibit calcium oxalate monohydrate crystal bunch [18]. The decreased ability of urines to inhibit the agglomeration of calcium oxalate crystals could provide a possible physicochemical explanation for the adverse effects of high-protein diet on renal stone formation [18]. Additionally, it has been indicated that high-protein intake could cause increased glomerular filtration charge per unit and decreased fractional renal tubular reabsorption of calcium and urinary sodium [19]. In another study, salubrious subjects with a history of renal stones fed on a low (LPD) and a high (HPD) fauna poly peptide diet; after ii weeks it was found that high dietary intake of purine-rich animal poly peptide had an impact on urinary urate excretion and supersaturation in renal stone disease [21]. There was an increment in urinary urate, urinary acid excretion, ammonium ion excretion, and uric acrid supersaturation and a fall in urine pH on HPD. The risk of forming uric acrid or ammonium urate crystals or stones in the urine was increased on a high protein nutrition [21]. Moreover, in a prospective accomplice study it was investigated whether protein intake influences the rate of renal office change over an 11-year menses. The results showed that loftier full protein intake, particularly high intake of nondairy animal protein, may accelerate renal role decline in women with balmy renal insufficiency [22]. Furthermore, a study about the short-term effect of increasing the dietary consumption of animal protein on the urinary risk factors for rock-formation showed increased levels of urinary calcium and oxalate. The accompanying increase in dietary purine caused an increase in the excretion of uric acid. The overall relative probability of forming stones, calculated from a combination of the risk factors, was markedly increased (250%) throughout the period of high animal poly peptide ingestion [23].

Pathobiochemical mechanisms of animal protein-induced nephrolithiasis.

4. Increased Cancer Risk, Disorders of Liver Function, and Precipitated Progression of Coronary Artery Disease

Up to 80% of breast, bowel, and prostate cancers are attributed to dietary practices, and international comparisons show positive associations with high meat diet [6]. The clan, even so, seems to accept been more than consistently establish for cherry-red meat or processed meat and colorectal cancer [7]. Possible mechanisms include the formation of heterocyclic amines in meat when it is cooked. These heterocyclic amines crave acetylation past P450 enzymes, and individuals with the fast-acetylating genotype who swallow high amounts of meat may be at increased take chances of large-bowel cancer [vi]. Information technology should be noticed that red meat is the chief dietary source of saturated fat, which has been associated with breast and colorectal cancers [1]. Moreover, NH_three and Northward-nitroso compounds (NOC) formed from residues by bacteria in the big bowel are probably also important. NH₃ is a promotor of large-bowel tumours chemically induced past NOC, and some of the chromosomal mutations found in human colorectal cancer are consistent with effects of NOC and heterocyclic amines [6]. In a cohort study subjects who were gratuitous of diagnosed cancer completed a validated food frequency questionnaire and provided detailed information on other lifestyle and health-related factors. An elevated take a chance of colon cancer was associated with red meat intake [24]. Men who ate beefiness, pork, or lamb equally a main dish five or more times per week had an elevated relative take a chance compared to men eating these foods less than once per calendar month. The association with red meat was non confounded appreciably by other dietary factors, physical activity, body mass, alcohol intake, cigarette smoking, or aspirin utilize [24]. Furthermore, in a prospective study subjects without a history of cancer, inflammatory bowel disease, or familial polyposis completed a dietary questionnaire [25]. After aligning for total energy intake, fauna fatty was positively associated with the risk of colon cancer. The relative chance of colon cancer in subjects who ate beefiness, pork, or lamb as a main dish every day was increased, as compared with those reporting consumption less than once a month [25]. In an interesting study the overall data set derived from an integrated series of case-control studies included histologically confirmed neoplasms; controls were patients admitted to infirmary for astute, nonneoplastic conditions unrelated to long-term modifications in diet [26]. The multivariate odds ratios (ORs) for the highest tertile of reddish meat intake (≥7 times/calendar week) compared with the lowest (≤three times/week) were ane.vi for stomach, one.9 for colon, 1.7 for rectal, 1.6 for pancreatic, i.vi for bladder, one.2 for breast, 1.5 for endometrial, and one.3 for ovarian cancers. Thus, reducing crimson meat intake might lower the adventure for several common neoplasms [26]. Moreover, highprotein/loftier meat nutrition could cause disorders of liver office and precipitated progression of coronary artery illness. Hyperalbuminemia and elevated transaminases accept been associated with high-poly peptide diet [27]. Individuals on high protein supplements developed intermittent intestinal pain, transient elevations in transaminases, and hyperalbuminemia without at that place being whatsoever identifiable cause. The symptoms and abnormalities on the laboratory tests resolved after the high protein intake was discontinued [27]. In a case-control study, subjects (treatment group/TG) were studied for i twelvemonth past using myocardial perfusion imaging (MPI), echocardiography (Echo), and serial claret piece of work [28]. MPI and Echo were performed at the kickoff and terminate of the study for each individual. The TG grouping studied modified their dietary intake as instructed. Boosted subjects (high protein grouping/HPG) elected a different dietary regimen consisting of a "high-poly peptide" diet [28]. Subjects in the TG demonstrated a reduction in each of the contained variables studied with regression in both the extent and severity of coronary artery disease (CAD) every bit quantitatively measured by MPI. Individuals in the HPG showed worsening of their independent variables. These results would suggest that high-protein diets may precipitate progression of CAD through increases in lipid degradation and inflammatory and coagulation pathways [28].

5. Conclusions

Despite the fact that brusk-term high protein diet could be necessary in several pathological conditions (malnutrition, sarcopenia, etc.), it is evident that "too much of a good thing" in nutrition could be useless or fifty-fifty harmful for healthy individuals [one, 29]. Many adults or even adolescents (specially athletes or body builders) cocky-prescribe poly peptide supplements and overlook the risks of using them, mainly due to misguided beliefs in their performance-enhancing abilities [30]. Individuals who follow these diets are therefore at risk [31]. Extra poly peptide is non used efficiently past the body and may impose a metabolic burden on the bones, kidneys, and liver. Moreover, loftier-poly peptide/high-meat diets may likewise be associated with increased take a chance for coronary heart disease due to intakes of saturated fat and cholesterol or fifty-fifty cancer [31]. Guidelines for diet should attach closely to what has been clinically proved, and by this standard there is currently no footing to recommend loftier protein/high meat intake above the recommended dietary allowance for healthy adults [32–35]. Further investigation with large randomized controlled studies could provide more definitive show.

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